Fish Species Survives in 9... 5... 1 Stream?

Greenback Cutthroat Trout; courtesy USGS.

The greenback cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki somias) was designated as Colorado's state fish in 1994.  In the years since, this endangered native fish has come to symbolize some of the major struggles inherent in the conservation of various fish species throughout the Colorado River basin.  The greenback cutthroat trout, a relatively small fish that grows to be an average of 38 centimeters long, is assumed to have originated in "all mountain and foothill habitats of the South Platte and Arkansas river drainage systems."  Today, there is a complicated debate over where it actually still exists that brings into question both scientific information and human values.

On September 25, 2012, the New York Times ran an article entitled, "Rare Trout Survives in Just One Stream, DNA Reveals."  Based on a study by post-doctoral researcher Jessica Metcalf that was published in Molecular Ecology, the article explained how after "analyzing DNA sampled from cutthroat trout specimens pickled in ethanol for 150 years, comparing it with the genes of today’s cutthroat populations, and cross-referencing more than 40,000 historic stocking records," researchers discovered that there was only one wild population of greenback cutthroat left.  This research is being replicated by a second group to verify the results.

Courtesy Rocky Mountain Field Institute.

This remaining population of greenback cutthroat trout lives in Bear Creek, an alpine stream running from the eastern slope of Pikes Peak near Colorado Springs, CO.  Somewhat ironically, researchers believe that this specific population may have "descended from fish stocked at the Bear Creek headwaters in the 1880’s by a hotelier seeking to promote a tourist route up Pikes Peak."  If this is truly the case, the only existing population of this species was not saved by conservationists at all, but rather by citizens seeking to derive economic benefits.


Aside from the shock of discovering that only a single population of an endangered species exists, the findings were particularly surprising in light of the controversy surrounding recent conservation efforts of the species.  While the fish was thought to have gone extinct in 1937, researchers in the 1950's claimed that "remnant populations were found in tributaries."  After the fish was added to the endangered species list in the 1969, biologists used these populations to breed additional greenback cutthroat trout in hatcheries and propagate them into new waters.

However, in 2007, a three-year study done in part by University of Colorado researchers claimed that "out of nine fish populations believed to be descendants of original greenbacks, five were actually Colorado River cutthroat trout."  This second species of cutthroat trout is extremely similar to the greenback cutthroat, both to the naked eye and to early scientific tests, but actually has a distinct genetic line.  The Colorado River cutthroat trout, native to streams West of the Continental Divide, that were stocked into habitats with the greenback cutthroat trout may have actually out-competed the fish that researchers were attempting to save.

Courtesy New York Times.

In fact, there are fourteen subspecies of cutthroat trout, four of which have been found in Colorado.  However, it appears that humans have been stocking these different trout populations into various streams since the mid-1880's.  Although species have been transplanted outside of their native range, many have thrived and contributed to functional ecosystems.  Now, the population from Bear Creek is being bred and stocked in other locations.  In addition, just a few days before the newest study was released, the Center for Biological Diversity filed a Suit to Protect Rare Greenback Cutthroat Trout from the pollution and other habitat destruction caused by the use of off-road vehicles near Bear Creek.  Issues including "sedimentation and erosion impacts from 3.9 miles of the Pike National Forest system trail #667 which runs adjacent to upper Bear Creek" are already being managed to improve the trout's habitat.  Obviously, this new flood of information has raised the stakes of the suit.

Greenback Cutthroat Native Habitat Map; Courtesy USGS.

Jessica Metcalf, lead researcher on the newest study, acknowledges the irony of the situation:  “It’s ironic that stocking nearly drove the greenback cutthroat trout to extinction, and a particularly early stocking event actually saved it from extinction."  This issue seems to symbolize some major conservation conflicts and questions, especially for the unique Colorado River region:  should species be stocked into habitats where they are likely to thrive, even if those habitats are outside of their native range?  What unintended consequences--or in this case, benefits--may come from this type of management? The answers to these questions require a deeper exploration of the complex values and continuously evolving science surrounding the issues at hand.

Flooding the Colorado

2008 High-Flow Release--Glen Canyon Dam; Credit T. Ross, Bureau of Reclamation on NPT

The most recent experiment on the Colorado River shows a shift in perspective--or at least an incorporation of more diverse values--into the management of the river ecosystem as a whole.  On Monday, November 20, 2012, "The Colorado River cascaded in a flood from the Glen Canyon Dam," according to NBCNews.  This "flood" was actually an experimental release of water that had been in the works for many months prior to the event.  In fact, it was back in May 2012 that Interior Department officials finally decided that they would release water from Lake Powell down the Colorado River.

Courtesy EarthLabs.

Glen Canyon Dam is a massive 710-foot-tall structure that sits on the Colorado River right below Arizona's northern border near the town of Page.  It holds back Lake Powell's average 20+ million acre feet (maf) storage of water and generates hydroelectric power by means of eight turbines.  This is the largest volume of storage on the Colorado River, an element which has become essential to meeting the water needs of the Southwest.  However, the dam also restricts the natural seasonal flows of the river, drastically affecting the ecology of the river system and surrounding area.

Humpback chub, Courtesy Deserted Fish.

This experimental release, through both the power-generating and the bypass tubes of the dam, aims to mimic natural flows and help "rebuild high-elevation sandbars, deposit nutrients, and restore backwater channels," according to USGS.  In particular, restoring the habitat for the endangered native humpback chub is often cited as a primary goal.  The USGS website goes on to the explain that the last high-flow release in 2008 (proceeded by releases in 2004 and 1996) allowed 41,000 cubic feet per second (cfs) to flow freely down the Colorado River for about sixty hours.  This time, the flood gates were opened for five days, allowing a peak flow of 42,000 cfs to be reached for one day at the start of the experiment.  All of the specific stats on flow volumes and schedules can be found on the Bureau of Reclamation's website.

According to an article by National Parks Traveler, the 2008 release in particular was quite controversial with National Park officials, who were worried about the true purpose behind the releases.  Park Superintendent Steve Martin was particularly skeptical of the Environmental Assessment of the project, highlighting that the Bureau of Reclamation did not make the Park a cooperating agency in the process or give them proper time to comment on the plans.  Moreover, Martin was concerned with the scientific soundness of the plan, which described "steady" releases over the next five years that did not correspond with the previously established National Park management policies.  Because the water flowing down the Colorado River is such a valuable resource to all stakeholders involved, it's easy to see why Martin may have suspected that the goal of the flooding was not actually to benefit the natural resources, but instead to provide water to downstream users or benefit hydroelectric interests.  However, plans for the flooding pressed on.

Then DOI Secretary Dirk Kempthorne begins the 2008 release; Courtesy DOI.

In 2010, the US Geological Survey released an assessment of these high-flow events that claimed, "high flows through the Grand Canyon that mimic natural ebbs and flows are beneficial for the river corridor," but also noted that "many of the benefits are erased within six months due to energy demands that dictate releases through the Glen Canyon Dam."  Thus, the experiment is officially continuing (and is now slated to run on and off through 2020), but still meets some resistance.

Ken Salazar, Secretary of the Interior, has attempted to mitigate this conflict by explaining that high-flow releases that greatly benefit fish populations and improve sediment distribution can occur while simultaneously promoting other goals, such as electricity generation and water supply.  He promises further scientific assessment and increased inclusiveness of all necessary stakeholders in the process, a premise which is becoming increasingly important in policy-making endeavors throughout the American West in particular.  Additionally, although the high flows will temporarily cause some campsite closures, recreational interests are also jumping on board.  George Wendt, who serves as the president and CEO of OARS Outdoor Adventure River Specialists and a member of Protect the Flows (an organization mentioned in my earlier post on recreation), has publicly applauded the DOI for their decision to release flows that promote conservation and consequently improve the canyon for future use by boaters, rafters, and other recreators.

2012 Release from Bypass Tubes; Courtesy Bureau of Reclamation.

By including a wider variety of stakeholders--which inherently brings a breadth of new values to the table--and promising further scientific investigation into the issue, the Department of Interior seems to have made a positive step toward a more smooth and inclusive river management strategy.  Hopefully a portion of all of the diverse goals can be met:  improving ecosystems, increasing recreational activity, providing reliable hydroelectric power and water to residents, and perhaps most importantly, helping to bring various organizations together to promote sustainable future management of the Colorado River.

"Reconnecting the People with the River"

History was made--or rather, revised--on Tuesday, November 27, 2012, when officials from the United States and Mexico signed an ambiguously-named pact:  Minute 319.  However, the significance of the pact is unambiguous in that it marks a historic renewal of cooperation on management strategies of the Colorado River delta between the two neighboring countries.

Signing of Minute 319.  Courtesy YourWestValley (AP Photo).

Colorado River Delta.  Courtesy National Geographic.

In 1944, the US and Mexico negotiated the Utilization of Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande Treaty through the International Water and Boundary Commission. This agreement guaranteed 1.5 million acre feet (maf) of the Colorado River's flows to Mexico each year.  However, due to intense damming (particularly Glen Canyon Dam) and decreased flows, the Colorado River began to halt about seventy-five miles before it's original drainage point in the Sea of Cortez.  As a result, Mexico's once vibrant delta has morphed into an almost completely dry mudflat over the last seventy years.  The livelihood of the Cocopah Indians native to the region was threatened and much biodiversity was lost.  Now, Minute 319 seeks to undo some of this damage.

Water news website Circle of Blue describes the three central tenants of the agreement.  Firstly, "it brings Mexico into existing U.S. water-management agreements for sharing shortages and surpluses" by allowing them to store water in Lake Mead during dry periods under the premise that their 1.5 maf allocation will be restricted if total lake levels drop below 1,075 feet.  This is the first time that Mexico's allotment of 1.5maf may be limited since the signing of the 1944 Treaty.  Secondly, "it allows U.S. states to pay for irrigation improvements across the border and reap some of the water savings."  Basically, the US will invest ten million dollars into repairing inefficient irrigation infrastructure in Mexico and will receive 100,000 acre feet of Mexico's water allotment over a period of five years in return, an agreement that will provide extensive benefits to both countries.  Finally, "it allocates water for the restoration of the Colorado River delta." All three of these aspects are crucial to delta management, especially considering the consistently increasing use of the river compared with the decreasing average water supply.

USBR Data.  Courtesy HuffPost Blog

In addition to the above facets of Minute 319, the US will also release a "one-time only burst of water" that will essentially mimic what was once a normal spring flow for the Colorado River delta.  While it is highly unlikely that the delta will ever be restored to its original size, this strategy will provide a jump-start for the area that will hopefully lead to the creation of a functional, resilient ecosystem.

This revolutionary agreement holds the power to influence both US and Mexican citizens' perceptions of the importance of conserving this unique land area.  In an article on The World (Public Radio International), Francisco Zamora, director of the Sonoran Institute's Colorado River Delta Program, described the agreement as "kind of reconnecting the people with the river."  For his organization, whose major goal is to "enhance, restore, and maintain the Colorado River Delta ecosystem for people and the environment," the signing of Minute 319 marks a large leap in the right direction for Colorado River management policy.

A Sucker for Attention

Photo Credit:  Abraham Karam (Courtesy High Country News) 

Meet the razorback sucker (Xyrauchen Texanus):  a fish endemic to the Colorado River Basin.  This fish, which can grow to three feet in length and live for almost half a century, may have been navigating the Colorado's waters as far back as five million years ago, according to the Upper Colorado Native Fish Recovery Program.  However, over the last century and a half, a suite of native fishes has been introduced to its habitat and its population has begun a precipitous decline ever since.  Non-native fishes such as carp eat the razorback sucker eggs, while sunfish each both the razorback sucker eggs and young, according to the Rescuing the Razorback Sucker page of the USGS's website (Fort Collins Science Center section).  As of October 23, 1991, the species has been listed as "endangered" throughout its entire range.

Courtesy Grand Canyon River Outfitters Association

In recent weeks, however, this often forgotten fish has shown up on the popular media's radar.  On October 9th, a fish-surveying group that was electrofishing in the lower part of the Grand Canyon came across a single razorback sucker.  This was a particularly exciting find, considering that the National Park Service's website claims that the razorback sucker "may be extirpated" (locally extinct) the Grand Canyon.  According to the LA Times, some researchers "believe the fish might have traveled some 50 miles upstream from Lake Mead."


Basically, while the species was "historically widely distributed throughout both the Upper and Lower Colorado River," no razorbacks had been found in the Grand Canyon in recent years.  In fact, the last fish on record in the Grand Canyon area was caught in 1990, according to the Arizona Daily Sun.

Razorback Stocking. Courtesy USFWS

Rescuing the Razorback Sucker explains that the razorback sucker population experienced a 60% decline in just four years:  from 59,500 in 1988 to 23,300 in 1992.  This had led to conservation efforts by various teams of researchers working on Lake Mohave, where the largest and most genetically diverse population of razorback suckers remains.  These efforts include capturing razorback larvae, rearing them in safe locations, and stocking them back into the river as adults with better survival chances.


In addition, the Upper Colorado Native Fish Recovery Program lists the following efforts being taken to recover the razorback sucker in other locations on the Colorado River:

• Managing water to provide adequate instream flows to create beneficial water flow
• Constructing fish passages and screens at major diversion dams to provide endangered fish with access to hundreds of miles of critical habitat
• Restoring floodplain habitat
• Monitoring fish population numbers
• Managing nonnative fishes

Unfortunately, it's not only the razorback that's in trouble.  The Arizona Daily Sun article discussing the recent razorback capture also mentions how the Grand Canyon Wildlands Council found that "seven kinds of plants, nine types of insects, eight breeds of fish, 19 birds and 31 mammals...about 85 species, at least" are currently at risk just in the Grand Canyon, a quarter of which may already be extinct.  Fish species such as the Colorado pikeminnow, the humpback chub, and the bonytail face "impacts from dam building, diversions and channelization" that could push "the fish toward the brink of extinction," according to an article posted on the Summit County Citizen's Voice Blog on October 23, 2012.  The article goes on to discuss some of the important collaborative efforts taking place in the Upper Colorado River Basin--such as maintaining flows, removing non-native species, and operating fish screens, as well as taking advantage of low-flow conditions to repair infrastructure--that are helping to sustain fish populations.

Biologist Dave Speas with a bonytail.

Courtesy Summit County Citizen's Voice Blog

The large number of species at risk, coupled with the surprising sighting of a razorback sucker in its former habitat, serves as an important reminder of the need to consider various perspectives when managing the Colorado River system, especially in times of drought.  When coupled with some of the economic and social issues mentioned in my previous post, as well as the fact that millions of people now depend on the Colorado River for domestic and agricultural water supply, it's impossible to predict how much attention will be given to essential conservation recommendations like those listed above.

Shaping Perceptions Through Recreation

 

Courtesy Western River Expeditions

Sky-high canyon walls, raging whitewater rapids, serene fishing spots, and myriad other scenes of natural beauty draw tens-of-millions of people to the Colorado River, according to SaveTheColorado.org.  Whether they are citizens of the Western US or others traveling to the region through the increasing popularity of ecotourism, these visitors enjoy a multitude of recreational activities in an around the Colorado River.  They fish, swim, and boat in the Colorado's waters. They hike, hunt, picnic, and bird-watch from its shores.  In essence, they shape their perceptions of this unique region through their recreational experiences.

Courtesy Sunset Cities

The industry generated by this tourism is far from inconsequential. A recently released study by Protect the Flows, an organization of over 500 businesses throughout the seven Basin states, estimates that the Colorado River creates approximately $26 billion in economic output per year, $9.6 billion of which is produced in Colorado alone.  Furthermore, nearly a quarter million jobs are supported by the Colorado River.  Protect the Flows claims, "if the Colorado River were a company... [it] would be the 19th largest employer in the Fortune 500."  For many of the people employed in these positions, working on or near the river is more than a job:  it's a way of life.


However, the annual flow of the Colorado is decreasing.  While the river's flow was thought to be as high as 18maf (million acre-feet) during the years preceding creation of the Colorado River Compact, a seminal document which began the process of allotting the Colorado River, its annual flows have been significantly less since.  In fact from 2000-2010, the average annual flow was under 14maf.  According to the US Bureau of Reclamation's Colorado River Basin Water Supply and Demand Study, stored water has dropped 35% in the last twelve years, and demand is outweighing supply.  The below graph demonstrates both the average flow and the consequent reduction in water storage in lakes Powell and Mead from 1980-2010.

Courtesy of EDF's On the Waterfront blog

This shortage not only poses a threat to the thirty-six million people that depend on the river for domestic water supply and the farmers who use river water to irrigate four million acres of land (producing 15% of the nation's crops), but to also to those individuals and businesses who benefit from the diverse recreation activities listed above.  If recreators lose the opportunity to experience the Colorado River firsthand, their perceptions about the river's importance may be significantly altered.

Screenshot of Down the Colorado's Interactive Map

Zachary Podmore is dedicated to investigating exactly these sorts of issues.  Podmore is a Colorado native and environmental journalist currently blogging about the Down the Colorado Expedition.  This exciting project entails a two month journey down the Colorado River, where adventurers will interview a variety of stakeholder in hopes of creating a "robust geographical overview of [the] Colorado River basin."  They will return with photos, videos, water quality data, and a wealth of information from people who interact with the river in a variety of ways.

Podmore's recent piece entitled "Do Healthy Rivers Make a Stronger Economy?" (published by the Huffington Post on 10/12/12), contemplates whether the "pro-economy" mentality that can lead to activities such as increased drilling and river diversions really translates to the idea that "anything that's going to protect our state's natural resources is going to kill our jobs and hurt our wallets."  He understands that these issues are especially prevalent now--right before the next presidential election in November--and hopes that politicians and lawmakers will recognize the incredible economy stemming from the "recreational opportunities the mountains and rivers have to offer as intact mountains and rivers" (emphasis mine).

Ideally, when the importance of the Colorado River's economy is recognized, considerations for maintaining a "healthy" river will rise on the agenda.  As a result, recreators from around the world can continue to experience the beauty and grandeur of the river, which will hopefully inform their perceptions of its value and fragility as a natural resource.  While all recreational activities are not created equal, especially from an environmental management perspective, supporting the continued existence of these opportunities seems to be a step in the right direction.

2012: Colorado's "Year of Water"

Image Courtesy of

Colorado Water 2012

Colorado's Governor John Hickenlooper declared 2012 “The Year of Water in Colorado," an all-inclusive celebration-turned-awareness-campaign that aims to educate and engage Colorado’s citizens in the management of their water resources. 

The Colorado River is central to this campaign.  In fact, Colorado is celebrating this year in particular because 2012 marks the 75th anniversary of the establishment of the Colorado River Water Conservation District (as well as the creation of the Colorado Water Conservation Board and various other anniversaries).  The Colorado River Water Conservation District strives "To lead in the protection, conservation, use and development of the water resources of the Colorado River basin for the welfare of the District, and to safeguard for Colorado all waters of the Colorado River to which the state is entitled," according to the mission statement on their website.

The Colorado River Water Conservation District began as the Western Slope Protective Association, which was originally created to defend Western Slope interests in the midst of arguments about diverting a portion of the Colorado River to the Eastern Slope through the Colorado-Big Thompson Project.  The River Conservation District contains roughly 28% of the land area of Colorado (~29,000 square miles) and varies substantially in mission and scope from municipal conservancy districts (such as Northern Water and Ute Water Conservancy District, which are enacted by a group of landowners and the federal government in order to develop a specific water resource for public supply).  Additionally, the River Conservation District plays a major role in federal policy-making and litigation.  One famous example of this is the 1976 case of Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States.

In the following Colorado Water 2012 promotional video, Governer Hickenlooper summarizes some important parts of this history as well as some of the present challenges to Colorado water: 

The Colorado Water 2012 committee has also created a plethora of public education materials (included free of charge under the "Activities" section of the website) that aims to bring knowledge of Colorado’s water resources to the public.  From community events such as book clubs and “Watershed Groups” to educational activities for K-12 and post-secondary students, the committee has provided something for all age levels.  Check out the calendar of events here.

Courtesy of www.cwfe.org

But the outreach doesn’t stop there.  The influence of this unique initiative is spreading throughout the state.  The Colorado Foundation for Water Education, which was established by House Bill 02-1152 in 2002 specifically "to promote better understanding of Colorado's water resources and issues by providing balanced and accurate information and education," has become a major partner while also celebrating its own 10 year "birthday."  The Foundation produced a “public-friendly” Winter 2012 issue of their Headwaters publication that is more accessible to “individuals with relatively low water literacy,” says Headwaters Executive Director Nicole Seltzer in the issue’s welcome note.  The issue, which available for free online, includes useful information on drinking water quality and water “lingo” often used in technical reports, as well entertainment-based stories on topics such as tracing water from it’s source to the taps of Colorado’s many famous microbreweries.  The Colorado River appears again and again in these stories, reinforcing its importance in the system of rivers that provides for the state.

From the Winter 2012 Headwaters issue

This post has mentioned just a few of the sophisticated and accessible materials now available that strive to inform public perceptions of the Colorado River and other water resources in the state.  These websites, magazines, and public events share Colorado Water 2012's celebratory attitude by engaging citizens of diverse value sets with various topics concerning water (quality, conservation, energy, recreation).  Overall, they play an essential part in promoting an ethic of conservation for--or at least a new awareness of the challenges associated with--Colorado water.

(Note:  Many other organizations around the world are also currently prioritizing water education and conservation by creating “Year of Water” campaigns.  Check out what is perhaps the largest project—the International Year of Water Cooperation—led by UNESCO here).

Welcome

“The Colorado River’s modern notoriety... stems not only from its wild rapids and plunging canyons but from the fact that it is the most legislated, most debated, and most litigated river in the entire world. It also has more people, more industry, and a more significant economy dependent on it than any other comparable river in the world.” -Marc Reisner, Cadillac Desert

It is precisely for these reasons--a combination of science, policy, and values--that I am fascinated by the Colorado River.

Courtesy of www.britannica.com

A major water source for much of the southwestern United States, the Colorado River essentially makes life possible in such an arid climate.  While it is surely not the biggest or the longest river in the US, its complex history of over-apportionment beginning with the Colorado River Compact of 1922, as well as the variety of environmental issues that it currently faces (detailed in the final paragraphs of MIT's report here), has made it one of the most well known rivers in the world.  This blog aims to discuss a wide spectrum of factors relating to the Colorado River through the lens of public knowledge and perceptions.  More specifically, I hope to elaborate on some of the complex science, values, and policy issues mentioned above in Reisner's quote that surround the use and conservation of the river in order to promote the uniqueness and importance of this resource.